The Taxonomy of Three Homo Species

The Taxonomy of Three Homo Species Max Rivera Exploration: Every person today is the same species and genus as each other, Homo sapiens (4). This species of the Homo genus is what is the modern man is considered [JB1]today (4). People were not always of this species however, due to evolution and adaptation. It has been suggested [JB2]that modern humans evolved from a primal human-like species that came from East Africa (2, 6). It was from this primate ancestor that many species of the Homo genus were born, but only one species has survived up to the current day, which is us. Currently there have been fourteen different species of hominin that existed in history including Homo Sapiens (7). So how, genotypically, with regard to [JB3]mitochondrial cytochrome b, and phenotypically, with regards to posture and skeletal structure, do Homo Sapiens relate Homo heidelbergensis, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, andHomo sapiens denisova? Using the NCBI website I will look at how a[JB4] modern human compares to each of these species Humans belong to the family known as the great apes, or Hominidae. This group includes chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, and humans (2). Each of these species has similar traits, including hands and feet, five digits on each hand and foot, being mammals, etc. However, each of these species and genus are different because of their taxonomy. Homo heidelbergensis was an early hominid species that lived around the 700,000 200,000 years ago[JB5] in Europe, Africa, and possibly Asia[JB6]. This species was the first early hominid that was adapted [JB7]to living in colder environments, thanks to their smaller bodes conserving more heat, and their capabilities of being able to control fire. Evidence is seen [JB8]from fire tools and burnt wood sites in Israel. They hunted larger game thanks to their wooden spears which is apparent due to remains of animals at the time being discovered [JB9]with H. heidelbergensis fossils and tools. This species also was the first of the early hominids to use na tural structures as a method of shelter as seen by a site called Terra Amata in France. This species also has been found [JB10]to be the ancestor of both Neanderthals and the modern H. sapiens, which leave people wondering what was the ancestor for H. heidelbergensis (3, 5). Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, or the Neanderthal man, are H. sapiens closest extinct human relative. This can be seen [JB11]due to the certain facial features and that are similar to [JB12]those seen in people today, such as defined cheekbones, big noses, and a noticeable brow above the eyes. Living in Europe and Asia nearly [JB13]400,000 40,000 years ago, this species was able to [JB14]survive in cold and warm conditions due their use of shelters and building of fires. Unlike H. heidelbergensis, the Neanderthal man made and wore clothing and created symbolic objects. Also[JB15] there is evidence that this species would bury their dead, often leaving the bodies with mementos such as flowers making them the ear liest species to bury their dead (8, 9). Homo sapiens denisova, or the Denisova hominid, was only recently discovered through fossils in a cave in Siberia. Only two molars and a piece of a phalange were discovered [JB16]leaving this species physical appearance to remain a mystery morphologically. However, from the DNA evidence, it was found [JB17]that this species split off from Neanderthals nearly[JB18] 600,000 years ago, living in parts of southeast Asia (1, 10). Analysis: After running each of these species through a taxonomy blast sequence, the results were amazing due to the how big each tree was. The results of each blast can be seen [JB19]in the images titled Blast 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Three of the blasts resulted in 10 hits during the blast run, while the remaining three resulted in 50 hits during the blast run. The purpose of this was to observe the difference in result between blast hit results. Blast 1: Homo sapiens neaderthalensis 10 Blast Hits Blast 2: Homo sapiens neaderthalensis 50 Blast Hits Blast 3: Homo sapiens ssp. Denisova 10 Blast Hits Blast 4: Homo sapiens ssp. Denisova 50 Blast Hits Blast 5: Homo heidelbergensis 10 Blast Hits Blast 6: Homo heidelbergensis 50 Blast Hits The results of the blast were what expected, showing a result of how each species of Homo evolved from one common ancestor. Each graph was displayed [JB20]as a radial tree diagram due to it being the most appropriate of the graphs. With the 10 blast [JB21]hit sequence for H. sapiens neanderthalensis only 4 Neanderthal cytochrome b sequences, including the one chosen for the blast, were seen [JB22]whereas in the 50 blast [JB23]hit sequence, 5 Neanderthal sequences appeared. This change in result by the addition of one more Neanderthal sequence was probably due [JB24]to that one new sequence being of a percent identity that was adequate for a 50 blast [JB25]parameter. It possibly did [JB26]not show up in the 10 blast hit results because the identity percentage was not high enough. A similar notion can be seen [JB27]with the H. heidelbergensis. Only one result came up in the 10 blast [JB28]hit, then one more appeared in the results of the 50 blast [JB29]hit run. However, the result did not happen in the H. denisova for either of the blast trials, due to the cytochrome b on two different accessions being the highest identity percentage of the blast results. In correlation to the identity percentage values being very high on each of the blast trails, the E value for each of these graphs was an incredibly low number, being of a value between 1 x 10-4 and 8 x 10-4. These values were at such a low quantity to show how closely related each of the species in the blast were to one another. This was expected [JB30]since each of the species in the blast were of the same genus. Unfortunately, there is no data available to determine through a blast run what the common ancestor of each species is.   Ã‚   Results for seen through the table titled phenotypic comparisons seen below in Table 1. This table looks at the skeletal structure and posture of each of the 3 species in comparison to that of H. sapiens based on their skeletal structure (cranium, spine, ribs, etc.) and their posture (bipedal, arch, alignment, etc.). Species Skeletal Structure and Posture Compared to H. sapiens[JB31] H. heidelbergensis [JB32]Relatively[JB33] short adult males and females (avg[JB34] height: 5 11) Cranial capacity for average adult ~1,100 1,400 cm3 Bipedal due to thick shin bones and leg structure Average height of H. sapiens today is 6 2 (primarily for men). Cranial capacity of H. sapiens in current day is 1,200 1,700 cm3. Bipedal due to long femur bond, arched foot, and big toe being aligned [JB35]skeletally with foot structure. H. sapiens neanderthalensis [JB36] Shorter average size for males and females (avg. height: 5 3) Cranial capacity for average adult ~1200 1750 cm3 Bipedal due to long femur and arch in foot Average height of H. sapiens today is 6 2 (primarily for men). Cranial capacity of H. sapiens in current day is 1,200 1,700 cm3. Bipedal due to long femur bond, arched foot, and big toe being aligned [JB37]skeletally with foot structure. H. sapiens denisova [JB38] Species was discovered [JB39]in 2010, so no data to give facts about the Denisovans except that they are more closely related to Neanderthals than H. sapiens. Not enough data to compare this species to H. sapiens. Evaluation: Through the blast trials and skeletal structural evidence found online, the results that were expected [JB40]from the beginning of the experiment were observed[JB41]. From low E / high identity percentage value for genotypic results, to evolutionary differences in phenotypic traits. With each of the species that were input [JB42]into the NCBI blast run were all of [JB43]the Homo genus, the probability of major differences in genetic distribution would be low. Along with these low values, the identity percentages that were present in the blast run for each cytochrome b species result was high, often with a value 99 or 100%. Genotypically, each species is slightly different from one another, but this is due to said species evolving to better fit their climate and living conditions. Comparing it to the modern H. sapiens it was possible to see slight connections between each of the species (exception the Denisovan man) in terms of body posture (spine curvature) and walking ability (arche d foot and aligned big toe). From research[JB44] it was devised [JB45]how closely related modern humans are to when compared to different Homo species through genotypic and phenotypic comparisons. Works Cited Denisovans Harbour Ancestry from an Unknown Archaic Population, Unrelated to Neanderthals, Page 1. AboveTopSecret.com. NY Times, n.d. Web. 23 May 2016. The Great Apes. The Great Apes. Information Please, 10 Oct. 2000. Web. 23 May 2016. Homo Heidelbergensis. Hominidevolution . Australian Museum, 12 Apr. 2012. Web. 23 May 2016. Homo Sapiens. Human Origins Program. The Smithsonian Institution, n.d. Web. 23 May 2016. McCarthy, Eugene M. Homo Heidelbergensis. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 23 May 2016. O Neil, Dennis. Evolution of Modern Humans: Early Modern Homo Sapiens. Evolution of Modern Humans: Early Modern Homo Sapiens. N.p., 12 Apr. 1999. Web. 23 May 2016. Scientists Decode DNA of the Oldest Human Ancestor. Jengsos. Jengsos, 05 Aug. 2015. Web. 23 May 2016. Toba Through the Bottleneck and Human Evolution. Andamans. Nature Mag, n.d. Web. 23 May 2016. Walking Upright. Walking Upright. The Smithsonian Institution, n.d. Web. 23 May 2016. Wenz, John. The Other Neanderthal. The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, 24 Aug. 2014. Web. 23 May 2016. Grading or Evaluation Rubric Personal engagement This criterion assesses the extent to which the student engages in the exploration and makes it their own. One may recognize personal engagement in different attributes and skills. The student could discuss his or her individual interests. Also, the student could show evidence of independent thinking, creativity or initiative in the design, implementation, or presentation of the investigation. Mark Descriptor Awarded 0 This report does not meet the standards described. 2 1 The student presents limited evidence of personal engagement with the exploration with little independent thinking, initiative, creativity, or insight. The justification submitted by the student for selecting the research question and the topic under investigation does not show personal significance, interest, or curiosity. There is little evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation, or presentation of the investigation. 2 The proof of personal engagement with the exploration is evident with important independent thinking, initiative, creativity, or insight. The student showed personal significance, interest or curiosity in the justification given for selecting the research question used. The student demonstrates personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation, or presentation of the investigation. Comments on personal engagement: The student showed how the investigation was personal by using several different attributes and skills to achieve the goal. The students personal interests guided the investigation. The student showed independent thinking, creativity, and initiative in the design, implementation, and presentation of the inquiry. Exploration This criterion assesses the extent to which the student sets up the scientific context for the work, tells a clear and focused research question and uses concepts and techniques proper to the Diploma Program level. Where proper, this criterion also assesses awareness of safety, environmental, and ethical considerations. 0 The students report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below. 4 1-2 The student named the topic of the investigation, and a research question of some relevance is stated but not focused. The background information included is superficial or of limited relevance and does not aid the understanding of the context of the investigation. The method of the inquiry is only proper to discuss the research question to a very limited extent since it takes into consideration few of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability, and sufficiency of the collected data. 1. Independent variable not listed 2. Dependent variable not listed 3. Controls not listed 4. Hypothesis not presented (If , then , because ) 5. Materials specified, but incomplete 6. Procedure specified, but incomplete The report shows evidence of limited awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the method of the investigation* 3-4 The student named the topic of the investigation and described a relevant but not fully focused research question. The background information included is proper and pertinent and aids the understanding of the context of the inquiry. The method of the investigation is proper to discuss the research question but has limitations since it takes into consideration only some of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability, and sufficiency of the collected data. 1. Independent variable considered 2. Dependent variable considered 3. Controls showed and considered 4. Hypothesis presented in incorrect format (If -, then -, because -) 5. Materials not specified completely 6. Procedure not specified completely The report shows evidence of some awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the method of the investigation* 5-6 The student named the topic of the investigation and described a relevant and fully focused research question. The background information included is entirely proper and pertinent and enhances the understanding of the context of the inquiry. The method of the inquiry is highly proper to discuss the research question because it takes into consideration all, or most, of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability, and sufficiency of the collected data. 1. Independent variable named 2. Dependent variable named 3. Controls shown 4. Hypothesis presented in correct format (If , then , because ) 5. Detailed materials listed 6. Detailed procedure listed The report shows evidence of full awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the method of the investigation* Comments on exploration: The student set up the scientific context for the work, telling a clear and focused research question and using concepts and techniques proper to the program. The student considered and were aware of safety, environmental, and ethical considerations. Student did not list a hypothesis, but the report alludes to the hypothesis. Deeper development of background information would improve the report. Analysis This criterion assesses the extent to which the students report offers evidence that the student has selected, recorded, processed, and interpreted the data in ways that are relevant to the research question and can support a conclusion. 0 The students report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below 5 1-2 The report includes insufficient relevant raw data to support a valid conclusion to the research question. The student carried out some basic data processing, but it is either too inaccurate or too inadequate to lead to a valid conclusion. The report shows evidence of little consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty in the analysis. The student incorrectly or insufficiently interpreted the processed data so that the conclusion is invalid or very incomplete (Lacking statistical analysis) 3-4 The report includes relevant but incomplete quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a simple or partially valid conclusion to the research question. The student carried out proper, and enough data that could lead to a broadly valid conclusion, but there are significant inaccuracies and inconsistencies in the processing. The report shows evidence of some consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty in the analysis. The student processed the data so that a broadly valid but incomplete or limited conclusion to the research question to allow a conclusion (Statistical analysis were proper mean, median, mode, Chi-square, T-test, other) 5-6 The report includes enough relevant quantitative and raw qualitative data that could support an accurate and valid conclusion to the research question. The student carried out proper and sufficient information processing with the accuracy needed to enable a reader to reach a conclusion to the research question fully consistent with the experimental data. The report shows evidence of full and proper consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty in the analysis. The student correctly interpreted the processed data so that one can deduce a completely valid and detailed conclusion to the research question (Statistical analysis where proper mean, median, mode, Chi-square, T-test, other) Comments on Analysis: The students report offers evidence that the student selected, recorded, processed, and interpreted the data in ways that are relevant to the research question and can support a conclusion. More detailed statistical analysis would improve the report. Evaluation This criterion assesses the extent to which the students report offers evidence of evaluation of the investigation and the results of the research question and the current scientific context. 0 The students report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below. 5 1-2 The student outlined a conclusion which is not relevant to the research question or has no support by the data presented. The conclusion makes a superficial comparison to the current scientific context. The student outlined the strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, but restricts the information shown to an account of the practical or procedural issues faced. The student has outlined very few realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation. 3-4 The student describes a conclusion which is pertinent to the research question and supported by the data presented. The student describes a conclusion which makes some relevant comparison to the current scientific context. The student describes the strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, and offer evidence of some awareness of the methodological issues* involved in showing the conclusion. The student has described some realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation. 5-6 The student describes and justifies a definite conclusion which is entirely relevant to the research question and fully supported by the data presented. The student correctly describes a conclusion and justifies it through relevant comparison to the current scientific context. The student discusses strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, and offers evidence of a clear understanding of the methodological issues involved in setting up the conclusion. The student has discussed practical and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation. Comments on evaluation: The students report offers evidence of evaluation of the investigation and the results of the research question and the current scientific context. An in-depth discussion and application of statistical analysis would improve report. Communication This criterion assesses whether the student presents and reports the investigation in a way that supports effective communication of the focus, process, and outcomes. 0 The students report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below. 3 1-2 The presentation of the investigation is unclear, making it difficult to understand the focus, process, and outcomes. The report is not well structured and is unclear: the necessary information on focus, process and the student either presented the results in an inconsistent or disorganized manner or are missing. The student obscures an understanding of the focus, process, and outcomes of the investigation by the presence of inappropriate or irrelevant information. There are many errors in the use of subject-specific terminology and conventions**. Sources not properly cited and/or Works Cited page missing, not following Modern Language Association (MLA) style guidance. 3-4 The presentation of the investigation is clear. Any errors do not hamper understanding of the focus, process, and outcomes. The report is well structured and definite: the necessary information on focus, process and the results are present and presented in a coherent way. The report is relevant and concise thereby helping a ready understanding of the focus, process, and outcomes of the investigation. The use of subject-specific terminology and conventions is proper and correct. Any errors do not hamper understanding**. Sources properly cited and Works Cited page included, following Modern Language Association (MLA) style guidance. Comments on Communication: The student presented and reported the results of the investigation in a way that supports effective communication of the focus, process, and outcomes while having some errors in the correct format and MLA style guidance. Marks achieved 19 Numeric grade (based on 100%) 79.2 IB Marks Grade 5 * One should apply this indicator only when proper to the investigation. ** For example, incorrect/missing labeling of graphs, tables, images; use of units, decimal places, referencing and citations. Conversion from marks to percentage Pre-lab report 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 8.4 16.6 25.0 33.4

Elections and democracy Essay

QUESTION 1; 1. Do you think elections can be a good measure of democracy? Discuss this statement in relation to elections recently held in African countries you are familiar with. INTRODUCTION The year 2011 experienced serious levels of political activities in Africa such as political upheavals, middle-east uprisings and elections in many countries. Most Islamic nations rose against their long-ruling leaders, hence saw the ousted of Egyptian Hosni Mubarak and the killing of Muamar Gaddafi after a six-month war between the Gaddafi loyalists and the anti-Gadhafi fighters assisted by NATO. However, while this was taking place, other countries like Zambia, Congo DR, Nigeria, Liberia were also exercising their obligation of having other leaders not by violence but by the ballot. The countries which fought hard to remove long-rule-leaders wanted to just as other countries have the freedom to choose their leaders in an election, a move considered to be a democratic activity of the citizen. Elections are being considered to the most important way of showing how democratic a nation is. However, in reality there is surely more to democracy than just holding an election, thus, this essay will analyse as to whether elections only are the sufficient measure of democracy. MAIN BODY Democracy’ is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as ‘a form of government in which people have a voice in the exercise of power, typically through elected representatives’. Democracy is most obviously manifest through elections which enable people to choose representatives. However ‘democracy’ is not an absolute category, whereby if a country has an election it can be regarded as ‘democratic’. Instead, a state’s democratic credentials involve assessing many, if not all, aspects of governance and the political system. There is much debate over what constitutes democracy both in theory and in actuality. In one classic definition, by Robert Dahl, democracy requires ‘not only free, fair, and competitive elections, but also the freedoms that make them truly meaningful (such as freedom of  organization and freedom of expression), alternative sources of information, and institutions to ensure that government policies depend on the votes and preferences of citizens’ (Dahl 1971). Thus democracy is not just about majority rule, but requires political freedoms so there can be debate and independent decision making. Commonly recognized essential components of democracy include: multi-party electoral competition, freedom of association, freedom of movement, independent media, and the rule of law. Achieving such freedoms may be a staggered process in which there are different patterns of democracy. It is widely suggested that democracy enables people to fulfil a basic human interest and need to participate in civil and political life. The Inter-Parliamentary Union comment in their Declaration on Criteria for Free and fair Elections ‘Recognising the right of everyone to take part in the government of his or her country is a crucial factor in the effective enjoyment by all of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Democracy is argued to benefit the society as a whole, as dialogue enables relevant issues to be addressed and the best solutions to be found based on informed and considered choices, and those in governance are kept responsible and accountable and under a limited mandate.’ It is argued that democracy increases the chances of peace within a state and with other states. Democracy is also thought to reduce the likelihood of political repression and to increase the chances of stability and economic growth. Amartya Sen points out one dramatic example of this indivisibility of civil-political and socio-economic rights in identifying that ‘no substantial famine has ever occurred in any independent democratic country with a relatively free press’ (Sen 1999). The American non-governmental organization, Freedom House, in its 2002 global survey concluded ‘the GDP of Free countries stood at $26.8 trillion, while the GDP of Not Free countries was $1.7 trillion’. DISCUSSION From the understanding of liberty and freedoms, the government must be erected by the participation of very free people not under coercion. It implies that the citizens must have a free will to choose leaders of their choice and be able to have freedom of expression within the given framework. Thus, elections become a very important voice for citizens to select their  leaders as that is how they participate in the process of making decisions .However, there is more to democracy than just holding elections and electioneering. There are many other factors to consider to complete democracy than just holding an election Elections today, which signify democracy, must be judged by the conformity to standard norms that constitute free and fair elections. A free election is based on the presumption that fundamental human rights and freedoms are respected. These would include freedom of assembly, association, expression, and information. In addition, freedom would include freedom from violence, intimidation and coercion, freedom to access the polling stations by both voters and monitors, and freedom to make choices without fear of repercussions.But in Zambia,prior to elections,there was a lot of intimidation by the ruling MMD by brutalising the opposition,corrupting the youths with beer to cause confusion in a way of campaigning.So there was coecion before election as opponents were not ready to frely make their own decisions over who to vote for. In another example,Congo DR November elections were marred with extreme violence prior to and during the election. The Joseph Kabila’s party had no respect for the peoples rights,hence brutality and willfull killing took place and spread to other places especially were the opposition members were concentrated. In Nigeria, during the 2011 elections there was a serious witnessing of electoral and ethnic violence where more than 1000 people died. This was attributed to the government’s inability to be transparent in election procedures so much that elections were postponed three times and this gave worse suspicion and more violence. So it’s clear that even though the elections are being held, but then they are far from showing any sort of democracy. African News and Current Affairs(2011) reports that other divisive elements of this year’s ballot include an initial delay to the polls; a result of the implementation of a new voter system. The polls were actually in progress in several states when Nigeria’s Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) chair affirmed the postponement necessary to ‘maintain the integrity of the elections and retain effective overall control of the process’.This move was met with protest and interpreted variously as; a ploy to rig results, a broad move to block such attempts, pure incompetence or a mixture of all three, theories which undermined the transparency of proceedings before they had properly begun. Additionally  election are fair when all the participant be it in ruling or opposition political parties have on a level footing in order to produce the legitimate results acceptable to all the characters. This means no intimidation, equality in accessing the campaign resources, media and other amenities However, the 2011 tripartite election showed how the Zambian government could control the â€Å"independent ECZ† by easily breaking the election rules . The then ruling MMD were actually distributing gifts to electorates when it was clear that it was against the law. Further, the ruling party had started campaigning far before the campaign period or election date was even announced.ECZ was well aware of such malpractices but could not control the â€Å"big guy â€Å"in the electoral game. In fact how can a body be independent if the Directors and others in ECZ are directly appointed by the president? The independence of the electoral institutions is undermined by a number of factors, resulting in multiplicity of controversies in virtually every aspect of the elections, such as voter registration, polling stations, duration of polls, demarcation of constituencies, verification and announcement of results and access to the media. In addition, during election campaign, the campaign ground wasn’t level as the ruling party had all the resources to propel a smooth and prosperous campaign which gave the ruling party a strong upper hand in the game. They could use any resources ranging from public vehicles, money and power to curtail other parties’ ability to campaign properly. The ruling party could easily buy anyone to fake defection and pay up the chiefs or headmen in order to belong to the their side, but at the same time demonising opposition parties and preventing them from accessing funds for campaigns. Conclusion Finally, much as elections is cardinal for the erection of democracy, but then it is surely not the sufficient measure for democracy. A country can hold the election but then if these elections are not free and fair, there is unequal distribution of resources, there is no transparency in all the dealings of the government, there is no respect for human rights and freedoms by the constitutional holders and no freedom of expression and no free media, democracy can’t prevail in the country. Bibliography Banda, F. (2003) Community Radio Broadcasting in Zambia: A Policy Perspective, Doctoral Dissertation, and University of South Africa (UNISA) Barnett, C & Murray, L (2004) Spaces of democracy: Geographical Perspectives on Citizenship, Participation and Representation. London: Sage Publications Barnett, C. (1999) The Limits of media democratization in South Africa: politics, privatization and regulation. London: Sage Publications Brown, Michael E. (ed.), Debating the Democratic Peace. Boston, MIT Press, 1996. Dahl, Robert, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971). Sen, Amartya, ‘Democracy as a Universal Value’. Journal of Democracy, vol. 10, no, 3, July 1999.

Wegener and the Theory of Continental Drift

Prepared for Dr. Heather Hauser Shorter University EASC 2060 The Natural World Submitted by Lillie Momon December 6, 2011 Running head: Wegener and the Theory of Continental Drift Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) was a German scientist in the fields of meteorology, astronomy, and geology. He was one of the first scientists to theorize about the continental drift or continents in motion, which supports the belief that the Earth's continents once were a single land mass. Wegener called this land mass, â€Å"Pangaea†, because the continents began to break up, and various parts drifted away from one another. According to Wegener, â€Å"the eastern shoreline of Africa and the western shoreline of South America fit together like a piece of jigsaw puzzle, and when you align the continents at their continental shelves, their fit is even better† [ (Wegener, 2007) ]. When scientist and geologist began to traveler around the world, it was even more evident that Wegener’s theory of continental drift could be possible, because scientist had once thought that the continents had started off in their places, where they now lie. However, Wegener’s theory began to change the way people looked at the world. Based on the theory of continental drift, Wegener began to gather evidence from around the world from landforms, fossils, and climate and put it in a book titled â€Å"The Origin of Continents and Oceans,† which was published in 1915. Wegener’s theory was rejected because he could not provide evidence on the force that moved the continents. Base upon the reading of, Conceptual Integrated Science, Harry Hess and Robert Dietz, both scientists came up with a hypothesis that linked, Wegener’s theory of continental drift, to seafloor spreading. The seafloor is repeatedly changing; as new lithosphere forms in mid ocean the older lithosphere is pushed from the ridge into a deep ocean trench, which causes the continents to shift† [ (Weil, 1997) ]. According to Dr. Heather Hauser, a professor at Shorter University, in the late nineteen fifties, geologists found new evidence of continental drift, such as two rocks matching exactly. Both rocks were the same age, and h ad the same exact genetic structure. These two landforms were discovered in 1958. The location of these rocks, were western South America and south eastern Africa. This discovery helps prove that continental drift has actually occurred, because it is nearly impossible for two rocks of the same kind to turn up on two separate continents [ (Hauser, 2011) ]. Then in 1912, Wegener also found a tropical plant on the island of Spitsbergen. This island lies north of Norway in the Atlantic Ocean. Today Spitsbergen is covered in ice and has polar climate. This is important because today no tropical plant can grow in Spitsbergen, because its temperature is too cold. Wegener indicated that, Spitsbergen was once closer to the equator. He thought that this was the only possible solution for the unusual discovery. At the same time when Spitsbergen was warm and tropical, Africa’s temperature was freezing, but today Africa is known for its hot and tropical climate. Some geologists have concluded that the temperature was once freezing by discovering rocks that are covered in deep scratches. These scratches were caused by continental glaciers. Today, Africa’s weather is too mild for any type of glacier to form. Wegener concluded that when Pangaea existed, it was closer to the South Pole. Based on science research, when any continent moves to either pole, their temperature begins to drop. Based upon, all of the evidence from the landforms, fossils and climate, leads one to believe that continental drift did occurred [ (Wagner, 2008) ]. Scientist also discovered particular fresh water reptile fossils that have been found in Africa and South America. These two continents were separated by the Atlantic Ocean, making it extremely difficult for the same fossil to be found on to different continent. Which makes Wegener’s theory more plausible? Scientist later discovered a fernlike plant, which had existed about two hundred and fifty years ago. Wegener used this plant to prove his theory of continental drift could have occurred, because this plant was found in many locations [ (Wagner, 2008) ]. Also based upon, the evidence from the landforms, fossils and climate, leads scientist and geologist alike to believe that continental drift, actually did occur. We also have our reading material from, Conceptual Integrated Science and a short documentary film on the earth crust that was showed in our Science class, the Natural World, which ook placed at Shorter University, supervised by, Dr. Heather Hauser, which implies that the plate tectonics are the main forces behind the changes that happen here on Earth. If we were to use some of the evident of plate tectionic,using the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate to illustrate just a few of the fascinating features that are created along these boundaries. A ccording to the evident reviewed, the earth’s crust is not a solid mass. It is shaped more like a jigsaw puzzle that is made up of continental plates that shift around on top of the mantle. This movement takes place very slowly and large scale movement can only be measured in millions of years according to Dr. Hauser [ (Hauser, 2011) ]. Wegener’s theory is largely based on a combination of two main ideas: Continental Drift and Sea flooring. Each piece of the puzzle slides and grinds past, under, over, or away from the other pieces around it. The boundary where the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate meet is called, a convergent boundary. This is where one plate (The Pacific Plate) moves into and then underneath the other one (North America). This creates a whole lot of grinding, folding, pushing, and otherwise violent forces [ (Hewitt, 2007) ]. So therefore, based upon the evidence which have been provide in reference to the landforms, fossils, climate, seafloor spreading, and plate tectonic compels one to believe, that Alfred Wegener, theory of the continental drift really did occurred and that continental drift will continue for millions and millions or years, long after humans are gone. Hauser, D. H. (2011, November 29). The Natural World. (L. Momon, Interviewer) Hewitt, P. G. (2007). Conceptual Integrated Science. San Francisco: Pearson. Wagner, I. 2008, Aug 11). The Great Continental Drift Mystery. Retrieved November 28, 2011, from Yale Educational Curriculum: http://www. yale. edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/6/91. 06. 05. x. html Watson, J. (1999, Oct 11). Dynamic Contienents. Retrieved November 26, 2011, from http://pubs. usgs. gov/gip/dynamic/continents. html Wegener, A. (2007). Continental Drift-An Idea Before I ts Time. In P. G. hewitt, Conceptual Integrated Science (pp. 511-517). San Francisco: Pearson. Weil, A. (1997, Mar 6). The Rocky History of an Idea. Retrieved November 26, 2011, from Plate Tectonics: http://www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/geology/techist. html

Physician Assisted Suicide - Essay - 1944 Words

Tara Ford English Comp 111 Physician Assisted Suicide Physician assisted suicide is also called euthanasia. It is a highly debated topic on whether it should be legal or not. Some states have taken different stands on this question, some making it legal to do. I believe that every citizen who is suffering from a degenerative, painful or fatal condition, should have the right to decide if they want the option of a physician assisted suicide. I believe in a society such as ours we should all have the right to die with some kind of dignity. Although there are several debates against this view point, it is not up to anyone else to make decisions of the ill and infirm. As such it should be recognized that â€Å"patients have a right to make†¦show more content†¦By having a doctor writing a prescription to a terminally patient, a doctor can allow the patient to end their life in a safe, effective and painless way. A lot of patients, who are suffering from chronic, painful, fatal conditions that would eventually bring death, have a strong belief that the only way to stop the suffering for them and their family watching them is suicide. Before the thoughts of a physician assisted suicide the patients would attempt suicide on their own, an act which was not as painless or successful as the doctors option to helping out. The option of the doctor’s choice would be much more painless and faster than the patient attempting it on their own. As one study shows, â€Å"Medical illness was a factor in half the suicides in people ages 50 and older and 70 percent of those ages seven years and older. Increased life expectancy, chronic illness, technology advances, and expanded treatment options have all complicated the process of dying† (Mackelprang 315). There is always a good chance that a suicide attempt could go very wrong and have a worse effect on the patient than before the attempt. Although an unsuccessful suicide attempt is a worse case scenario, it should be noted that many suicide attempts are not painless. For patients removing life support, the process is very slow and painful. The suffocation process is not the humane way for any one to have to die. If the patients who were thinking about attempting suicide on their ownShow MoreRelatedPhysician Assisted Suicide Essay1214 Words   |  5 Pagesrelentless pain and agony through physician assisted death? Physician-Assisted Suicide PAS is highly contentious because it induces conflict of several moral and ethical questions such as who is the true director of our lives. Is suicide an individual choice and should the highest priority to humans be alleviating pain or do we suffer for a purpose? Is suicide a purely individual choice? Having analyzed and even experience the effects of physician assisted suicide, I promote and fully support itsRead MoreEssay On Physician Assisted Suicide1549 Words   |  7 PagesWriting Project Worksheet 1. This paper will examine the Washington state policy of physician-assisted suicide. 2. State Info: (characteristics, size, culture, political culture, industries, features, etc. to explain state support of policy) Washington is a state in the northwestern United States with an estimated population of 7,288,000, as of July 1, 2016. Washington’s population is primarily white at 69% (not including Hispanics), with Hispanics comprising 12.4%, Asians 8.6%, and African AmericansRead MoreEssay on Legalizing Physician-Assisted Suicide1871 Words   |  8 PagesPhysician-assisted suicide should be a legal option, if requested, for terminally ill patients. For decades the question has been asked and a clear answer has yet to surface. It was formed out of a profound commitment to the idea that personal end-of-life decisions should be made solely between a patient and a physician. Can someones life be put into an answer? Shouldnt someones decision in life be just that; their decision? When someone has suffered from a car accident, or battled long enoughRead More Physician-Assisted Suicide Essay - Euthanasia Should Not be Legalized793 Words   |  4 Pagessuch a form no longer meets meets the bas ic criteria of human- ness.   (OKeefe, A1)   Under these circumstances only should Euthanasia be practiced and then only passively (pulling the plug).   Dutch Death, Euthanasia, doctor assisted suicide, whatever you want to call it, it should not be legalized.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   People should live their lives for as long as long as it is worth living.   As long as someone can still have experiences and communicate with others, they shouldRead MorePhysician Assisted Suicide Essay1799 Words   |  8 PagesAssisted Suicide A controversial human rights issue in modern society is the right to die, an issue that has much to do with the way that human beings relate to society at large, the notion that a man has ownership of their own body, and the obligations set forth in the Hippocratic oath and medical ethics. Physician assisted suicide, or the right to die as those in the pro-assisted suicide movement call it, divides two very different kinds of people into two camps. One’s opinion on the subjectRead More Physician-Assisted Suicide Essay2768 Words   |  12 PagesPhysician-Assisted Suicide Francis Bacon once said, â€Å"I do not believe that any man fears to be dead, but only the stroke of death.† In other words, people are not afraid to die. Rather, they are afraid of the way in which they are going to die. Today, four centuries of medical progress later, Bacon’s words are truer than ever. Medical advances have allowed physicians to prolong the lives of their patients, or maybe it would be better to say, to prolong their deaths. People areRead MoreArgumentative Essay : Physician Assisted Suicide Essay1095 Words   |  5 PagesArgumentative Essay: Physician Assisted Suicide, Should it be Legalized? Physician assisted suicide is requested by the terminally ill, typically when the pain from the illness is too much to handle and is not manageable through treatments or other medications. Assisted suicide is more of a broad term for helping someone die a good death, physician assisted suicide is where a medical doctor provides information and medication and the patient then administers the medications themselves. EuthanasiaRead MoreEssay on Is Physician Assisted Suicide Ethical?2628 Words   |  11 PagesIs Physician Assisted Suicide Ethical? Theresa Anderson SOC 120 Introduction to Ethics amp; Social Responsibility Instructor: David Jung November 25, 2012 Physician assisted suicide, is this an ethical procedure? Many feel strongly on both sides of this issue. Some states such as Washington and Oregon have made Physician assisted suicide legal. Other states such as Michigan and Massachusetts have put the issue to a vote and the voters have turned down the option. What exactly is physicianRead MorePhysician-Assisted Suicide Essay1038 Words   |  5 Pagesof their patients, or to assist them in ending their lives? Many people may believe that physicians would never perform the latter, but in actuality one practice does so. Physician assisted suicide is the intentional ending of one’s life brought on by lethal substances prescribed by a doctor. In the majority of cases, the patient is terminally ill and simply does not desire to live any longer. Their physician provides the medication necessary to end their life. Many supporters aver that this practiceRead MorePhysician-Assisted Suicide Essay1605 Words   |  7 Pagestheir life, in order to escape the horror. Committing suicide is a traumatizing experience for any and all involved. Life is precious. The chance to live is only given once, and cannot be taken for granted. Preventing even a single life from ending early is imperative and obligatory to everyone. Suicide can never be an option. Why then is it acceptable as an alternative treatment for dire medical conditions? Phy sician-Assisted Suicides have a negative impact on those involved and is unethical